Wrocław [ˈvrɔt͡swaf] ( listen) (German: Breslau ( listen); Czech: Vratislav; Hungarian: Boroszló; Lithuanian: Vroclavas; Latin: Vratislavia or Wratislavia; Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief city of the historical region of Lower Silesia in south-western Poland, situated on the Oder (Polish: Odra) river. Over the centuries the city has been part of Poland, the Kingdom of Bohemia, Austria, Prussia, and Germany. In 1945, the Potsdam Agreement granted the city to Poland. Since 1999 it has been the capital of Lower Silesian Voivodeship. According to official population figures for 2006, its population is 635,280, making it the fourth largest city in Poland.
Etymology
The city's name was first recorded in the year 1000 by Thietmar's Latin chronicle called Thietmari Merseburgensis episcopi Chronicon as Wrotizlawa. The first municipal seal stated Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie. Simplified name is given in 1175 as Wrezlaw, Prezla or Breslaw. The Czech spelling was used in Latin documents as Wratislavia or Vratislavia. At that time, Prezla was used in Middle High German, which became Preßlau. In the middle of the 14th century the Early New High German (and later New High German) form of the name Breslau began to replace its earlier versions.
The city is traditionally believed to be named after Wrocisław or Vratislav, often believed to be Duke Vratislaus I of Bohemia. It is also possible that the city was named after the tribal duke of the Silesians or after an early ruler of the city called Vratislav.
The city's name in various foreign languages include in English: Wroclaw, Hungarian: Boroszló, Italian: Breslavia, Latin: Vratislavia or Wratislavia, Hebrew: ורוצלב (Vrotsláv), Slovak: Vratislav or Vroclav, Belarusian: Уроцлаў (Vrotslai), Greek: Βρότσλαβ (Vrotslav), Russian: Вроцлав (Vrotslav); also Бреславль (Breslavl), Serbian: Вроцлав or Vroclav and Ukrainian: Вроцлав (Vrotslav). Names of Wrocław in other languages are also available.
History
The city of Wrocław originated as a Bohemian stronghold situated at a long-existing trading route to Greater Moravia and Bohemia. The city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia, possibly derived from the name of the Bohemian duke Vratislav I who died in 921. At that time the city bears the name of Vratislavia and is limited to district of Ostrów Tumski (the Cathedral Island).
Piast era
In 990 king Boleslaw I of Poland conquered Silesia and Wroclaw and established the first bishopric of Silesia in 1000. The city quickly became a commercial center and expanded rapidly to the neighbouring Wyspa Piaskowa (Sand Island), and then to the left bank of the Odra river. In 1163 it became the capital of the duchy of Silesia. By 1139 two more settlements were built. One belonged to Governor Piotr Włostowic (a.k.a Piotr Włast Dunin, Piotr Włost or Peter Wlast; ca. 1080–1153) and was situated near his residence on the Olbina by the St. Vincent's Benedictine Abbey. The other settlement was founded on the left bank of the Oder River, near the present seat of the university. It was located on the trade route that lead from Leipzig and Legnica) and followed through Opole, and Kraków to Kievan Rus'.
The city was devastated in 1241 during the Mongol invasion of Europe. The rebuilding included the expansion of the Main Market Square (Rynek) and all surrounding areas. German authoru Georg Thum writes that the decimated population was replenished by many Germans[1] who settled there and quickly became the dominant ethnic group. Norman Davies writes however that it is wrong to portay people of that time as Germans rather then Saxons or Bavarians. Also the city according to Davies always remained a multi-ethnic and Germanisation was never complete[2].According to Davies, while the German historiography tries to portay the Mongol invasion as an event which eradicated Polish community, in face of historic research this is doubtfull, as many Polish settlements remained, and Polish names appear on regular basis, including among Wrocław's ruling elite[3]. The Germanised name of the city, that is "Breslau" appeared for the first time in written records, and the city council from the beginning used only the Latin and German language.[4] The new and rebuilt town adopted Magdeburg rights in 1262 and, at the end of the 13th century joined the Hanseatic League. The Piast dynasty remained in control of the region, however their influence declined continuously as the self-administration rights of the city council increased.
In 1289–1292 the Přemyslid King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus II, became Duke of Silesia, then also King of Poland. With John of Luxemburg and his son, Emperor Charles IV (and king of Bohemia), Silesia was united with Bohemia, but retained its separate Ius indigenatus.
During much of the Middle Ages Wrocław was ruled by its dukes of the Silesian Piast dynasty. Although the city was not part of the Duchy's principality, its bishop was known as the prince-bishop ever since Bishop Preczlaus of Pogarell (1341–1376) bought the Duchy of Grodków (Grottkau) from Duke Boleslaw of Brzeg (Brieg) and added it to the episcopal territory of Nysa (Neisse), after which the Bishops of Wrocław had the titles of Prince of Neisse and Dukes of Grottkau, taking precedence over the other Silesian rulers.
Bohemia and Austria
Wrocław historic City Hall built in a typical 14th century Brick Gothic
In 1335, the city was incorporated with almost the entirety of Silesia into the Kingdom of Bohemia, and a Landeshauptmann (Provincial governor) was appointed to administrate the country. Between 1342 and 1344 two fires destroyed large parts of the city. Four years later Casimir III of Poland renounced all dynastic rights in Silesia in the treaty of Namslau/Namysłów and Charles IV, king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, visited the town. His successors Wenceslaus and Sigismund became involved in a long lasting feud with the city and its magistrate, culminating in the revolt of the guilds in 1418 when local craftsmen killed seven councillors. In a tribunal two years later, when Sigismund was in town, 27 ringleaders were executed. He also called up for a Reichstag in the same year, which discussed the earlier happenings in the city.
When George of Poděbrady became king of Bohemia the city opposed the Hussite and instead sided with his Catholic rival Matthias Corvinus. After Breslau fought alongside Corvinus against Bohemia in 1466 the Silesian classes rendered homage to the king on May 31, 1469 in the city, where the king also met the daughter of mayor Krebs, Barbara, which he took as his mistress. In 1474 Mattthias Corvinus finally incorporated Breslau and Silesia in his dominion, which returned to Bohemia when he died. 1475 marks the beginning of movable type printing in the city, when Kasper Elyan opened his printing shop. The first illustration of the city was published in the Nuremberg Chronicle in 1493. Documents of that time referred to the town by many variants of the name including Wratislaw, Bresslau and Presslau.
The ideas of the Protestant Reformation reached Breslau already in 1518, and in 1519 the writings of Luther, Eck and the opening of the Leipzig Disputation by Mosellanus were published by local printer Adam Dyon. In 1523 the town council unanimously, and against the chapter, appointed Johann Heß as the new pastor of St. Maria Magdalena and thus introduced the Reformation in Breslau. In 1524 the town council issues a decree that obliged all clerics to the Protestant sermon and in 1525 another decree banned a number of Catholic customs. Breslau became Protestant.
After the death of Louis II in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria inherited Bohemia, Silesia and the city of Breslau. In 1530 Ferdinand I awarded Breslau its current coat of arms. On October 11, 1609 German emperor Rudolf II granted the Letter of Majesty, which ensured free exercise of church services for all Bohemian and Silesian Protestants. After the election of the staunch Catholic Ferdinand II as king of Bohemia Breslau supported the Bohemian revolt as they feared their right to freedom of religious expression, which was granted in the letter of majesty, would be revoked. In the following Thirty Years' War the city suffered badly, was occupied by Saxon and Swedish troups and lost 18.000 of 40.000 citicens due to plague.
The Counter-Reformation started already with Rudolf II and Martin Gerstmann, bishop of Breslau. One of his successors, bishop Charles of Austria, didn't accept the letter of majesty on his territory. At the same time the emperor encouraged several Catholic orders to settle in Breslau. The Minorites came back in 1610, the Jesuits arrived in 1638, the Capuchins in 1669, the Franciscans in 1684 and the Ursulines in 1687. In the next years these orders unfolded a unequalled building activity and shaped the appearance of the city until 1945. The Jesuits were the main representatives of the Counter-Reformation in Breslau and Silesia. Much more feared however were the Liechtensteiner dragoons, which converted people by force and expelled those who refused. At the end of the Thirty Years' War Breslau was only one of a few Silesian cities which stayed Protestant, and after the Treaty of Altranstädt of 1707 four churches were given back to the local Protestants.
During the Counter-Reformation the intellectual life of the city, which was shaped by Protestantism and Humanism, flourished, as the Protestant bourgeoisie of the city lost its role as the patron of the arts to the Catholic orders. Breslau and Silesia, which possessed 6 of the 12 leading grammar schools in Germany, became the center of German Baroque literature. Poets like Martin Opitz, Andreas Gryphius, Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau, Daniel Casper von Lohenstein and Angelus Silesius formed the so called First and Second Silesian school of poets which shaped the German literature of that time.
In 1702 the Jesuit academy was founded by Leopold I and named after himself, the Leopoldine Academy.
Wroclaw Central Train Station
Prussia
During the War of the Austrian Succession in the 1740s, most of Silesia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia's claims were derived from the agreement, rejected by the Habsburgs, between the Silesian Piast rulers of the duchy and the Hohenzollerns who secured the Prussian succession after the extinction of the Piasts. The Protestant citizenry didn't fight against the armies of Protestant Prussia and Frederick II of Prussia captured the city without a struggle in January 1741. In November 1741 the Silesian classes rendered homage to their new king and in the following years Fredericks armies often stayed in the city during the winter month. After three wars empress Maria Theresa finally renounced Silesia and Breslau in the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763.
The integration into Prussia brought greater religious freedom along. The Protestants of the city, which were oppressed by the Catholic Habsburgs, could now freely express their faith, and the new Prussian authorities also allowed the establishment of a Jewish community.
After the demise of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 Breslau was occupied by an army of the Confederation of the Rhine between 1807 and 1808, and the Continental System disrupted trade almost completely. The fortifications of the city were leveled and almost every monastery and cloister secularized. The Protestant Viadrina university of Frankfurt (Oder) was relocated to Breslau in 1811, united with the local Catholic university of the Jesuits and formed the new Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität (Wrocław University).
In 1813 King Frederick William III of Prussia gave a speech in Breslau signalling Prussia's intent to join the Russian Empire against Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars. He also donated the Iron Cross and issued the proclamation "An mein Volk" (to my people), summoning the Prussian people to war against the French. The city became the center of the Liberation movement against Napoleon Bonaparte as volunteers from all over Germany gathered in Breslau, among them Theodor Körner, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn and Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow, who set up his Lützow Free Corps in the city.
The Prussian reforms of Stein and Hardenberg led to a sustainable increase in prosperity in Silesia and Breslau. Due to the leveled fortifications the city could grow beyond her old borders. Breslau became an important railway hub and a major industrial centre, notably of linen and cotton manufacture and metal industry. Thanks to the unification of the Viadrina and Jesuit university the city also became the biggest Prussian center of sciences after Berlin, and the secularization laid the base for a rich museum landscape.
In 1854 the Jewish Theological Seminary was created, one of the first modern rabbi seminars in Europe. His first director, Zecharias Frankel, was the principal founder of Conservative Judaism. The first Jewish students' fraternity in the German lands, the Viadrina, was created in 1886 in Breslau. Polish student associations were banned [5].
When the Prussian-led German Empire was created in 1871 during the process of Germany's unification, Breslau became the empire's sixth-largest city, its population more than tripled to over half a million between 1860 and 1910. The Prussian census from 1905 lists 470,904 residents, thereof 20,536 Jews, 6,020 Poles and 3,752 others. Breslau possessed the third largest Jewish community in Germany.[6][7]
Weimar Republic
In 1919 Breslau became the capital of the newly created Province of Lower Silesia, its first head of government (German: Oberpräsident) was social democrat Felix Philipp. The Social democrats also won the Lower Silesian elections of 1921 with 51.19%, followed by the Catholic center with 20.2%, DVP 11.9%, DDP 9.5% and the Communists with 3.6%. Due to increased ethnic tensions, in August 1920 during the pro-Polish Silesian Uprising in neighbouring Upper Silesia, the local Polish school and the Polish library were devastated. After the reconstitution of Poland the number of Poles in Breslau dropped from 2 percent before World War I to 0.5 percent during the interwar years.[8] In 1923 the city was a scene of antisemitic riots.[9] After the incorporation of 54 communes between 1925 and 1930 the city expanded to 175 km² and housed 600.000 people. In 1929 the Werkbund opened WuWa (German: Wohnungs- und Werkraumausstellung) in Breslau-Scheitnig, a international showcase of modern architecture by architects of the Silesian branch of the Werkbund. Between 26. and 29. of June 1930 Breslau hosted the Deutsche Kampfspiele, a sporting event for German athlets after Germany was excluded from the Olympic Games after World War I.
Nazi period and World War II
The city became one of the largest support bases of NSDAP movement, and in 1932 elections the Nazi party received in it 43,5 % of votes, achieving the third biggest victory in Weimar Germany[10]
In 1933 the Gestapo began actions against Polish and Jewish students[11] who were issued special segregationist ID documents like those of Communists, Social Democrats, trade unionists, and other people deemed threats to the state. Notably, people were even arrested and beaten for using Polish in public.[12] In 1938 the Polish cultural centre (the Polish House) in Breslau was destroyed by the police,[11] and many of the city's 10,000 Jews were deported to pre-war concentration camps; those who remained were killed during the Nazi genocide of World War II. Most of the Polish elites also left during 1920s and 1930s while Polish leaders who remained were sent to concentration camps[11]. During the war, 363 Czech and 293 Polish prisoners, as well as resistance members from Western Europe, were executed by guillotine in the city's prison [1]. In total, the German regime killed 896 in this way.
In addition, a network of concentration camps and forced labour camps, or Arbeitslager, was established in the district around Breslau, to serve the city's growing industrial concerns, such as FAMO, Junkers and Krupp. The total number of prisoners held at such camps would have exceeded many tens of thousands.[2]
Throughout most of World War II Breslau was not close to the fighting. The city became haven for refugees, swelling in population to nearly one million[13].
In February 1945 the Soviet Red Army approached the city. Gauleiter Karl Hanke declared the city a Festung (fortress), i.e. a stronghold to be held at all costs. Concentration camp prisoners were forced to help build new fortifications (see Arbeitseinsatz). In one area, the workers were ordered to construct a military airfield intended for use in resupplying the fortress, while the entire residential district along the Kaiserstraße (now Plac Grunwaldzki) was razed. The authorities threatened to shoot anyone who refused to do their assigned labour. Eyewitnesses estimated that some 13,000 died under enemy fire on the airfield alone. In the end, one of the few planes that ever used it was that of the fleeing Gauleiter Hanke.[14]
Hanke finally lifted a ban on the evacuation of women and children, when it was almost too late. During his poorly organised evacuation in early March 1945, around 18,000 people froze to death, mostly children and babies, in icy snowstorms and -20°C weather. Some 200,000 civilians, less than a third of the pre-war population, remained in the city, because the railway connections to the west were damaged or overloaded.
By the end of the Siege of Breslau, 50% of the old town, 90% of the western and southern and 10-30% of the northern and northeastern quarters of the city had been destroyed. 40,000 inhabitants, including forced labourers, lay dead in the ruins of homes and factories. After a siege of nearly three months, "Fortress Breslau" surrendered on May 7, 1945. It was one of the last major cities in Germany to fall.[15]
Poland
Along with almost all of Lower Silesia, post-war Wrocław became part of Poland under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. Most remaining German inhabitants fled or were expelled to one of the two post-war German states between 1945 and 1949. However, as was the case with other Lower Silesian cities, a considerable German presence remained in Wrocław until the late 1950s; the city's last German school closed in 1963.
The population of Wrocław was soon increased by resettlement of Poles forming part of postwar repatriation of Poles (1944–1946) (75%) as well as the forced deportations from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union in the east (25%) including from cities such as Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine), Stanisławów (now Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine), Wilno (now Vilnius, Lithuania), and Grodno (now Hrodna, Belarus).
Gradually parts of the old city and most monumental buildings were restored,[16] with special attention given to symbols of Polish history and religion including Gothic churches. Buildings damaged during the war were dismantled together with some already reconstructed houses, which were taken down in the 1950s during the Polish government's campaign called “bricks for Warsaw”,[17] providing much needed reconstruction material for the leveled out Old Town of the Polish capital. During the reconstruction of the city some left-over buildings from the German period were removed from the landscape of the city[18] while the Jewish cemeteries were preserved.
Recent history
Wrocław is now a unique European city of mixed heritage, with architecture influenced by Bohemian, Austrian, and Prussian traditions, such as Silesian Gothic and its Baroque style of court builders of Habsburg Austria (Fischer von Erlach). Wrocław still has a number of buildings by eminent German modernist architects (Hans Poelzig, Max Berg), the famous Centennial Hall (Hala Stulecia or Jahrhunderthalle) by Berg (1911–1913) being one of its finest examples.
In July 1997, the city was heavily affected by a flood of the Oder River, the worst flooding in post-war Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic. Nearly the entire city stood under water leaving only a small part unaffected.[19] An earlier equally devastating flood of the river took place in 1903.[20]
Historical populations
| Year |
1800 |
1831 |
1850 |
1852 |
1880 |
1900 |
1910 |
1925 |
1933 |
1939 |
| Inhabitants |
64,500 |
89,500 |
114,000 |
121,100 |
272,900 |
422,700 |
510,000 |
555,200 |
625,198 |
629,565 |
| Year |
1946 [21] |
1956 [22] |
1960 |
1967 |
1970 |
1975 |
1980 |
1990 |
1999 |
2003 |
| Inhabitants |
171,000 |
400,000 |
431,800 |
487,700 |
526,000 |
579,900 |
617,700 |
640,577 |
650,000 |
638,000 |
Administration
Post-modernist Arcades Complex opened in spring 2007, housing offices, cinemas, shopping malls and even a sharks' aquarium
Wrocław is the capital city of Lower Silesian Voivodeship, a province (voivodeship) created in 1999. It was previously the seat of Wrocław Voivodeship. The city is a separate urban gmina and city county (powiat). It is also the seat of Wrocław County, which adjoins but does not include the city.
Wrocław is subdivided into five boroughs (dzielnicas):
Main sights
Education
Today's Wrocław has ten state-run universities, including:
as well as numerous private institutions of higher education
Economy and transport
Wrocław's major industries were traditionally the manufacture of railroad cars and electronics. The city is served by Wrocław International Airport and a river port.
Major corporations
- Whirlpool Polar
- Volvo Polska sp. z o.o., Wrocław
- WABCO Polska, Wrocław
- Siemens, Wrocław
- Nokia Siemens Networks Sp z o.o
- Hewlett Packard, Wrocław
- Google, Wrocław
- Grupa Lukas, Wrocław
- AB SA, Wrocław
- Polifarb Cieszyn-Wrocław SA, Wrocław
- KOGENERACJA S.A., Wrocław
- Impel SA, Wrocław
- Europejski Fundusz Leasingowy SA, Wrocław
- Telefonia Dialog SA, Wrocław
- TietoEnator, Wrocław
- Wrozamet SA, Wrocław
- American Restaurants sp. z o.o., Wrocław
- Hutmen SA, Wrocław
- Fortum Wrocław S.A., Wrocław
- SAP Polska
- Hologram Industries Polska
- Zender sp. z o.o., Wrocław
- Swiftway / Eureka Solutions sp. z o.o., Wrocław
- MSI (Micro Star International) Polska Sp. z o. o.
- Cargill Poland
Religion
Like all of Poland, Wrocław's population is predominantly Roman Catholic; the city is the seat of an Archdiocese. However, post-war resettlements from Poland's ethnically and religiously more diverse former eastern territories (Polish: Kresy) and the eastern parts of post-1945 Poland (see Operation Wisła) account for a comparatively large portion of Greek Catholics and Orthodox Christians of mostly Ukrainian (see Ukrainian minority in Poland) and Lemko descent.
Professional sports
The Wrocław area has many popular professional sports teams. The most popular sport today is probably basketball, thanks to Śląsk Wrocław, the award-winning men's basketball team (former Polish champions, 2nd-place in 2004). Some matches of the 2012 UEFA European Football Championships in Poland and Ukraine are scheduled to take place in Wrocław.
Men's sports
- ASCO Śląsk Wrocław - (previous names:ASCO Śląsk Wrocław, Bergson Śląsk Wrocław, Era Śląsk Wrocław, Deichmann Śląsk Wrocław, Idea Śląsk Wrocław, Zepter Idea Śląsk Wrocław, Zepter Śląsk Wrocław, Śląsk ESKA Wrocław, Śląsk Wrocław, CWKS Wrocław) men's basketball team, 17th Polish Champiion former Polish Champion, 2nd place 2004 in Era Basket Liga
- Śląsk Wrocław - men's football team (Polish Championship in Football 1977; Polish Cup winner 1976, 1987; Polish SuperCup winner 1987) (2nd league from 2005 to 2007)
- Śląsk Wrocław - men's handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
- Atlas volleyball team playing in Polish Volleyball League (Polska Liga Siatkówki, PLS: Seria A in 2003/2004, Seria B in 2004/2005 season).
Women's sports
Prominent residents
Including some who were not born in Wrocław/Breslau
Pre-1945
- Alois Alzheimer — discoverer of Alzheimer's Disease.
- Adolf Anderssen — 19th-century chess master.
- Max Berg — architect, designer of Centennial Hall.
- Dietrich Bonhoeffer — Lutheran clergyman, religious leader in the resistance movement against Nazism.
- August Borsig (* 1804) — entrepreneur.
- Ernst Cassirer, philosopher.
- Ferdinand Cohn, biologist
- Johann Dzierzon (1811–1906), apiarist.
- Norbert Elias, sociologist
- Otfrid Förster (* 1873) — neuro-surgeon.
- Zecharias Frankel - rabbi and founder of Conservative Judaism
- Johann Heß - lutheran theologian, Protestant reformer of Breslau and Silesia
- Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau (1616–1679), Baroque poet
- Karl Eduard von Holtei (1798–1880) — poet and actor
- Vernon Ingram — biologist.
- Alfred Kerr - theatre critic and essayist
- Gerhard Kittel - New Testament scholar and philologist
- Gustav Robert Kirchhoff - physicist
- Otto Klemperer (* 1885) - conductor
- Carl Ferdinand Langhans - architect
- Carl Gotthard Langhans - architect
- Daniel Casper von Lohenstein - poet and diplomat
- Ferdinand Lassalle - socialist politician and reformer
- Carl Friedrich Lessing (* 1808) - artist
- Rudolf Meidner - Swedish economist and socialist theorist
- Joachim Meisner - Cardinal priest and archbishop of Cologne
- Adolph von Menzel - artist
- Edda Moser (*1938) - German soprano opera singer
- Louis Prang Louis Prang (March 12, 1824 - September 14, 1909) was a printer, lithographer and publisher
- Manfred von Richthofen - WWI flying ace
- Julius von Sachs - botanist
- Johann Gottfried Scheibel - (* 1783) - theological professor and dissenter to the Prussian Union
- Friedrich Schleiermacher - theologian and philosopher
- Angelus Silesius - 17th century religious poet
- Fritz Stern - historian
- Edith Stein - philosopher and Roman Catholic martyr
- Hugo Steinhaus - mathematician
- Siegbert Tarrasch - german chess player
- Michel Thomas - war hero and language teacher
- Christian Wolff - philosopher
Post-1945
Nobel laureates
listed by year of award
Twin towns and partnerships
Twin towns:
 Breda, Netherlands. Dresden, Germany. Charlotte,North Carolina United States. Guadalajara, Mexico. Hradec Králové, Czech Republic. Kaunas, Lithuania. Lviv, Ukraine. Ramat Gan, Israel. Toronto, Canada.- Wiesbaden, Germany.
Partnership:
References
- ^ Thum, p. 316
- ^ Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" page 110
- ^ Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" page 114
- ^ Thum, p. 316
- ^ Norman Davies Microcosm page 334, 336
- ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "Jews in Prewar Germany, 1933" http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/jger33.htm
- ^ Reference map with Jewish population at 1993 in other German cities by USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/ger77170.htm
- ^ Harasimowicz, p. 466f
- ^ Davies, Moorhouse, p. 396; van Rahden, Juden, p. 323-26
- ^ Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" page 369
- ^ a b c Davies, Moorhouse, p. 395
- ^ Kulak, p. 252
- ^ History of Wrocław
- ^ Davies, Moorhouse, p. 31
- ^ Festung Breslau (Wrocław Fortress) siege by the Soviet Army - photo gallery
- ^ Thum, Breslau passim.citation needed
- ^ Tyszkiewicz, Jakub ”Jak rozbierano Wroclaw” in Odra 1999/9, p 17 – 21.citation needed
- ^ Wlodzimierz Kalicki, Breslau - das Zuhause von Pawel und Malgorzata Transdora 17, October 1997. German: Agnieszka Pufelska, from Polish Gazeta Wyborcza 8 (Nr. 36 (132). September 1995.
- ^ 1997 great flood of Oder River - photo gallery
- ^ 1903 great flood of the Oder river - photo gallery
- ^ Immediately following Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II
- ^ The surge in population is the result of Repatriation of Poles (1944–1946) and the subsequent forced deportation of Poles living in Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
Further reading
English language
Polish language
- Długoborski, Wacław; Józef Gierowski, Karol Maleczyński (1958). Dzieje Wrocławia do roku 1807. Warszawa: PWN.
- Harasimowicz, Jan; Włodzimierz Suleja (eds.) (2001). Encyklopedia Wrocławia. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-561-5.
- Maleczyński, Karol; Marian Morelowski, Anna Ptaszycka (1956). Wrocław. Rozwój urbanistyczny. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Budownictwo i Architektura.
- Kulak, Teresa (2006). Wrocław. Przewodnik historyczny (A to Polska właśnie). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 8373844724.
- Świechowski, Zygmunt (ed.) (1978). Wrocław, jego dzieje i kultura. Warszawa: Arkady.
German language
- Scheuermann, Gerhard (1994). Das Breslau-Lexikon (2 vols.). Dülmen: Laumann Verlagsgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3899601329.
- Thum, Gregor (2003). Die fremde Stadt. Breslau 1945. Berlin: Siedler. ISBN 3-88680-795-9.
- van Rahden, Till (2000). Juden und andere Breslauer: Die Beziehungen zwischen Juden, Protestanten und Katholiken in einer deutschen Großstadt von 1860 bis 1925. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-35732-X.
External links
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