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National longevity recordholders 

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National longevity recordholders are those individuals who have survived to the oldest age in a given country. Such records can only be determined to the extent that the given country's records are reliable. Comprehensive birth registration largely came into being in the 20th century, and, currently, reliable records are necessarily fragmentary. The earliest comprehensive recordkeeping systems arose in Europe, in countries such as Sweden and the Netherlands. The United Kingdom organized a central recordkeeping system for England and Wales in 1837, which was compulsory by 1874.

This article gives the recordholders for various countries to the extent that they have been established. Male recordholders are also noted. Those born in one country who moved to another are identified insofar as information is available. If more than one recordholder is listed, this is due to disputed claims, alternative claims, or the lack of sufficient documentary evidence to make a clear determination between claimants. Countries are listed by nations in alphabetical order. It should be noted that some nations below were European colonies when the recordholder was born (i.e. French Algeria, Spanish Morocco) and the persons holding the record were in fact European as were the record-keeping systems.

Notes

María Esther de Capovilla lived to be 116 years old.
María Esther de Capovilla lived to be 116 years old.


National longevity recordholders chart

Country Name Sex Age Date of birth Date of death
Flag of Algeria Algeria Anne Primout F 114 years, 172 days October 5, 1890 March 26, 2005
Emile Fourcade M 111 years, 153 days July 29, 1884 December 29, 1995
Flag of Australia Australia Christina (Clay) Cock F 114 years, 148 days December 25, 1887 May 22, 2002
John Henry "Jack" Lockett M 111 years, 123 days January 22, 1891 May 25, 2002
Flag of Austria Austria Maria Mika F 112 years, 178 days May 23, 1882 November 17, 1994
Leopold Vietoris M 110 years, 309 days June 4, 1891 April 9, 2002
Flag of Belgium Belgium Joanna Deroover F 112 years, 186 days June 3, 1890 December 6, 2002
Jan Machiel Reyskens (died Netherlands) M 111 years, 241 days May 11, 1878 January 7, 1990
Louis Marion M 110 years, 79 days October 10, 1893 December 28, 2003
Flag of Canada Canada Marie-Louise Meilleur F 117 years, 230 days August 29, 1880 April 16, 1998
George Frederick Ives (born UK) M 111 years, 204 days November 17, 1881 April 12, 1993
Joseph Saint-Amour M 110 years, 18 days February 26, 1852 March 16, 1962
Flag of Cape Verde Cape Verde Adelina Domingues (died USA) F 114 years, 183 days February 19, 1888 August 21, 2002
Flag of Colombia Colombia Daniel Guzmán-García M 111 years, 105 days February 6, 1897 May 21, 2008
Flag of the Czech Republic Czech Republic Emilie Doležalová[1] F 110 years, 153 days June 7, 1894 November 17, 2004
Flag of Denmark Denmark Christian Mortensen (died USA) M 115 years, 252 days August 16, 1882 April 25, 1998
Johanne Svensson (died Sweden) F 111 years, 125 days January 24, 1892 May 29, 2003
Anne Matthiesen F 111 years, 114 days November 26, 1884 March 19, 1996
Flag of Ecuador Ecuador María Capovilla F 116 years, 347 days September 14, 1889 August 27, 2006
Flag of Finland Finland Lempi Rothovius F 112 years, 259 days October 2, 1887 June 17, 2000
Aarne Arvonen M &0000000000000111.000000111 years, &0000000000000016.00000016 days August 4, 1897 Living
Flag of France France Jeanne Calment F 122 years, 164 days February 21, 1875 August 4, 1997
Maurice Floquet M 111 years, 320 days December 25, 1894 November 10, 2006
Flag of Germany Germany Charlotte Benkner (died USA) F 114 years, 180 days November 16, 1889 May 14, 2004
Maria Laqua F 112 years, 362 days February 12, 1889 February 9, 2002
Hermann Dörnemann M 111 years, 279 days May 27, 1893 March 2, 2005
Flag of Greece Greece Gregory Pandazes (died USA) M 110 years, 341 days January 15, 1873 December 22, 1983
Lambrini Tsiatoura M 110 years, 50+ days 1870 February 19, 1981
Ioanna Lambropoulos F 110 years, 25 days May 8, 1884 June 2, 1994
Flag of Hungary Hungary Elizabeth Stefan (died USA) F 112 years, 332 days May 13, 1895 April 9, 2008
Csiki Sándorné F 110 years, 174 days January 18, 1894 July 22, 2004
Molnár Gergely András M 108 years, 116 days November 16, 1897 March 22, 2006
Flag of Iceland Iceland Guðrún Björnsdóttir (died Canada)[2] F 109 years, 310 days October 20, 1888 August 26, 1998
Sólveig Pálsdóttir[2] F 109 years, 69 days August 20, 1897 October 28, 2006
Helgi Símonarson[2] M 105 years, 345 days September 13, 1895 August 24, 2001
Flag of India India Lucy D'Abreu (died UK) F 113 years, 197 days May 24, 1892 December 7, 2005
Flag of Ireland Ireland Katherine Plunket F 111 years, 327 days November 22, 1820 October 14, 1932
Flag of Italy Italy Virginia Dighero-Zolezzi F 114 years, 4 days December 24, 1891 December 28, 2005
Antonio Todde M 112 years, 346 days January 22, 1889 January 3, 2002
Flag of Japan Japan Shigechiyo Izumi (disputed) M 120? years, 237 days June 29, 1865? February 21, 1986
Yukichi Chuganji M 114 years, 189 days March 23, 1889 September 28, 2003
Tane Ikai F 116 years, 175 days January 18, 1879 July 12, 1995
Flag of the Netherlands Netherlands Hendrikje van Andel F 115 years, 62 days June 29, 1890 August 30, 2005
Thomas Peters M 111 years, 354 days April 6, 1745 March 26, 1857
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand Florence Finch (born UK) F 113 years, 109 days December 22, 1893 April 10, 2007
Ethel Booth F 110 years, 55 days December 25, 1890 February 18, 2001
Flag of Norway Norway Maren Bolette Torp F 112 years, 61 days December 21, 1876 February 20, 1989
Herman Smith-Johannsen (lived in Canada) M 111 years, 204 days June 15, 1875 January 5, 1987
Flag of Peru Peru Julia Mendivil (Bergmann) Dougherty (died USA) F 110 years, 106 days August 20, 1893 December 4, 2003
Flag of the Philippines Philippines Melchora Aquino F 107 years, 55 days January 6, 1812 March 2, 1919
Mariano Álvarez M 106 years, 163 days March 15, 1818 August 25, 1924
Flag of Poland Poland Rozalia Mielczarek F 112 years + 1868 January 7, 1981
Flag of Portugal Portugal Maria de Jesus F &0000000000000114.000000114 years, &0000000000000345.000000345 days September 10, 1893 Living
Augusto Oliveira Moreira M &0000000000000111.000000111 years, &0000000000000319.000000319 days October 6, 1896 Living
Flag of Romania Romania Anitica Butariu F 115? years, 157 days June 17, 1882? November 21, 1997
Flag of Russia Russia Khasako Dzugayev M 110 years + August 7, 1860 August 1970
Helen Czechowicz F 110 years, 33 days January 1, 1896 February 3, 2006
Flag of Slovakia Slovakia Alžbeta Budínska[3] F 107 years, 140 days November 17, 1898 April 6, 2006
Flag of Slovenia Slovenia Katarina Marinič F &0000000000000108.000000108 years, &0000000000000295.000000295 days October 30, 1899 Living
Flag of South Africa South Africa Johanna Booyson[4] F 111 years, 151 days January 17, 1857 June 16, 1968
Flag of Spain Spain Joan Riudavets M 114 years, 81 days December 15, 1889 March 5, 2004
Maria del Carmen Figueiro Freiria de Salgueiro F 113 years, 209 days October 28, 1883 May 25, 1997
Flag of Sweden Sweden Astrid Zachrison[5][6] F 113 years, 0 days May 15, 1895 May 15, 2008
Anders Engberg[7] M 111 years, 128 days July 1, 1892 November 6, 2003
Flag of Switzerland Switzerland Emma Duvoisin F 111 years, 67 days July 5, 1886 September 30, 1997
Fritz Bösch M 109 years, 273 days 25 February 1877 25 November 1986
Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom Charlotte Hughes F 115 years, 252 days August 1, 1877 March 17, 1993
John Evans M 112 years, 295 days August 19, 1877 June 10, 1990
Flag of the United States United States Sarah Knauss F 119 years, 97 days September 24, 1880 December 30, 1999
Mathew Beard M 114? years, 222 days July 9, 1870? February 16, 1985
Fred H. Hale, Sr. M 113 years, 354 days December 1, 1890 November 19, 2004

Territorial recordholders

Territory Name Sex Age Date of birth Date of death
Flag of the Faroe Islands Faroe Islands (Denmark) Jóhannes Tauser[8] M 105 years, 323 days February 23, 1902 January 12, 2008
Fredrikka Maria Sigvardsen F 105 years, 144 days July 2, 1875 November 23, 1980
Flag of Guadeloupe Guadeloupe (France) Eugénie Blanchard F &0000000000000112.000000112 years, &0000000000000186.000000186 days February 16, 1896 Living
Flag of Guernsey Guernsey (UK) Margaret Ann Neve F 110 years, 321 days May 18, 1792 April 4, 1903
Flag of Martinique Martinique (France) Luce Maced F 113 years, 299 days May 2, 1886 February 25, 2000
Flag of New Caledonia New Caledonia (France) Marie-Louise Lhuillier F 112 years, 185 days June 26, 1895 December 28, 2007
Flag of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (U.S.) Emiliano Mercado del Toro M 115 years, 156 days August 21, 1891 January 24, 2007
Ramona Trinidad Iglesias-Jordan F 114 years, 272 days August 31, 1889 May 29, 2004
Flag of Réunion Réunion (France) Julia Sinédia-Cazour F 113 years, 86 days July 12, 1892 October 6, 2005
Spanish Morocco (Spain/Morocco, after 1956) Consuelo Moreno-Lopéz (died USA) F 111 years, 282 days February 5, 1893 November 13, 2004

Algeria

Algerian-born Frenchwoman Anne Primout (October 5, 1890-March 26, 2005) holds the Algerian record at 114 years and 172 days.

The male record belongs to Emile Fourcade at 111 years and 153 days (July 29, 1884-December 29, 1995), who also went on to be the oldest Frenchman ever, but since then Maurice Noël Floquet has surpassed this (see France).

Note: Algeria was legally a part of France from 1890 to 1962. Both Anne Primout and Emile Fourcade were French-speaking colonials.

Australia

Christina (Clay) Cock holds the female record at 114 years, 148 days (December 25, 1887–May 22, 2002).

John Henry "Jack" Lockett holds the male record at 111 years, 123 days (January 22, 1891–May 25, 2002).

Austria

Maria Mika holds the female record at 112 years, 178 days (May 23, 1882-November 17, 1994).

Leopold Vietoris, a notable mathematician, holds the male national record at 110 years, 309 days (June 4, 1891–April 9, 2002).

Belgium

Joanna Catharina "Woinke" (Turcksin) DeRoover holds the female record at 112 years and 186 days (June 3, 1890–December 6, 2002).

As Jan Machiel Reyskens (see Netherlands) retained Belgian citizenship, some consider him Belgium's male recordholder, which is correct officially. The oldest man who lived his entire life in Belgium however is Louis Marion, who was even their oldest inhabitant at the time of his death at age 110 years and 79 days (October 10, 1893-December 28, 2003).

Canada

Marie-Louise Meilleur holds the documented female record at 117 years, 230 days (August 29, 1880–April 16, 1998).

Herman Smith-Johannsen, nicknamed Jackrabbit Johannsen, is often claimed as the documented male recordholder at 111 years, 204 days (June 15, 1875–January 5, 1987). Though he was born in Norway and died there visiting family, he spent the bulk of his life in Canada (and introduced cross-country skiing to the country) and is buried there. The oldest man to actually die in Canada was UK-born George Ives (the last Second Boer War veteran, November 17, 1881 - April 12, 1993) at 111 years, 146 days. The oldest native-born Canadian man was Harry Chaloner (May 10, 1874 - October 30, 1984) at 110 years, 173 days (Harry emigrated to the U.S., however, and the SSDI listed him as younger than claimed).

Cape Verde

As Adelina Domingues was born in Cape Verde (though she later emigrated to the United States), she may be considered to hold the overall record at 114 years, 183 days (February 19, 1888–August 21, 2002).

Czech Republic

Emilie Doležalová holds the Czech record at 110 years, 153 days (June 7, 1894 - November 17, 2004).

Marie Bernátková was a Czechoslovakian supercentenarian born on October 22, 1857. She was last known to be alive in October 1968, shortly after turning 111, but since her exact date of death is unknown, this claim is not entirely verifiable.

Denmark

Anne Matthiesen holds the Danish record at 111 years, 114 days (November 26, 1884–March 19, 1996).

Two Danish emigrants have lived longer: Johanne Svensson (January 24, 1892–May 29, 2003), who died in Sweden, is the oldest Danish-born woman (11 days older than Matthiesen), and Christian Mortensen went on to become the oldest man in the world (see below at United States).

Ecuador

María Capovilla (September 14, 1889 – August 27, 2006) was the longest-lived Ecuadorian ever and the only Ecuadorian supercentenarian on record. When she died at age 116 years and 347 days, she had been the oldest living person in the world for 2 years and 3 months.

Estonia

Maria Tomson (December 27, 1853 – April 26, 1966) is claimed to be the longest-lived Estonian ever at 112 years and 120 days, but her claim lacks documentary corroboration as of April, 2007.[1] If validated, she would have been the world's oldest person from February 17, 1963 until her death.

Juhan Kallaste (December 19, 1891 - August 28, 1999) lived to celebrate his 107th birthday. Some doubts were raised as to his true age as he changed his name in 1935 and was suspected of having added six years to his year of birth to avoid conscription during World War II, but his date of birth has been confirmed by a church registration. His claim has not been verified by any international body.

Finland

The official record is held by Lempi Rothovius at 112 years, 259 days (October 2, 1887–June 17, 2000). She also previously held the female record for the Nordic countries, before Astrid Zachrison of Sweden surpassed her in 2008.

The current and all time male recordholder is Aarne Arvonen, born August 4, 1897.

France

Jeanne Calment is the world's oldest recorded person at 122 years, 164 days (February 21, 1875–August 4, 1997). She is therefore the oldest recorded French person and French woman as well.

Maurice Floquet is the oldest recorded French man to have lived. He died aged 111 years, 320 days (December 25, 1894-November 10, 2006).

Germany

According to the German government: Maria Laqua, who died at 112 years 362 days (February 12, 1889–February 9, 2002) holds the female record.

Hermann Dörnemann holds the male record at 111 years, 279 days (May 27, 1893–March 2, 2005).

German-born Charlotte Benkner, who emigrated to the United States, surpassed all these lifespans in reaching 114 years, 180 days, and may therefore have some claim to the record.

Greece

As Gregory Pandazes was born in Greece (though he later emigrated to the United States), he may be considered to hold the male record at 110 years, 341 days (January 15, 1873–December 22, 1983).

Ioanna Lambropoulos holds the female record at 110 years, 25 days (May 8, 1884 - June 2, 1994). Lambrini Tsiatoura (1870 - February 19, 1981) holds the record for the longest-lived person who died in Greece at 110 years, + days.

Hungary

Csiki Sándorné, née Földes Rozália (having lived in Lepsény), born January 18, 1894 and died July 22, 2004, holds the female record with 110 years and 186 days.

The oldest Hungarian man was Molnár Gergely András, who was born November 16, 1897 and died March 22, 2006 at age 108 years and 116 days.

Among emigrants, Elizabeth Stefan of Connecticut (born May 13, 1895 in Hungary, emigrated to the US in 1913) died April 9, 2008 at the age of 112 years and 332 days.

(Note: names are in the Hungarian order, with surname first.)

Iceland

The longest lived Icelandic was Sólveig Pálsdóttir (August 20, 1897-October 28, 2006), who died at age 109 years and 69 days.

The male record is held by Helgi Símonarson (September 13, 1895-August 24, 2001), who died at age 105 years and 345 days.

The oldest Icelandic born woman and overall recordholder is however Guðrún Björnsdóttir (October 20, 1888-August 26, 1998), who emigrated to Canada at an early age, and lived to be 109 years and 310 days.

India

The record for the oldest person born in India is 113 years and 197 days, held by Lucy D'Abreu (May 24, 1892-December 7, 2005). Though she moved to Ireland in 1913 and to Scotland in 1985, she was of Indian origin and maintained contact with her family in India even past age 110.

Ireland

Katherine Plunket (November 22, 1820–October 14, 1932) holds the Irish record at 111 years and 327 days (see her biography).

Italy

The longest-lived Italian was Virginia Dighero-Zolezzi (December 24, 1891-December 28, 2005). She is the only Italian to have reached 114 years of age.

Antonio Todde holds the male record at 112 years, 346 days (January 22, 1889–January 3, 2002).

Japan

Shigechiyo Izumi's claim of 120 years, 237 days (June 29, 1865?–February 21, 1986) is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records, but there is serious doubt among scholars as to whether he was in fact conflated with an older brother who died young.

Without more evidence for Izumi, most regard Tane Ikai (January 18, 1879–July 12, 1995) as the oldest reliably documented Japanese case at 116 years, 175 days. Certain older claims have been reported as valid by the Japanese government in the 1960s, but documentation was then of a lower standard.

Without Izumi, the oldest confirmed male Japanese is Yukichi Chuganji at 114 years, 189 days (March 23, 1889–September 28, 2003).

Netherlands

Hendrikje van Andel holds the overall national record at 115 years and 62 days and was thought to be the world's oldest living person from May 29, 2004 until her death on August 30, 2005 (though later superseded by Maria Capovilla). She was born June 29, 1890.

Thomas Peters has a claim to holding the male record at 111 years, 354 days (April 6, 1745–March 26, 1857). However, the correlation of the birth and death records used to confirm his claim is considered questionable.

If Peters is discounted, the Belgian-born Jan Machiel Reyskens would hold the male record at 111 years, 241 days (May 11, 1878–January 7, 1990). Jan Pieter Bos would then hold the male record as the longest-lived native Dutchman at 111 years, 156 days (July 12, 1891–December 15, 2002).

New Zealand

The oldest native New Zealander was Ethel Booth, who died aged 110 years and 55 days (December 25, 1890–February 18, 2001).

U.K.-born Florence Finch (December 22, 1893-April 10, 2007), however, died aged 113 years, 109 days.

Norway

Maren Bolette Torp holds the female record at 112 years, 61 days (December 21, 1876–February 20, 1989).

As Herman Smith-Johannsen (see Canada) was born in Norway, some consider him Norway's male recordholder. Otherwise it has to be native Norwegian Olav Hovatn, who died at 110 years, 185 days (October 23, 1893-April 26, 2004).

Peru

Julia Mendivil (Bergmann) Dougherty, who emigrated to the USA, holds the record at 110 years, 106 days (20 August 1893-4 December 2003).

Philippines

Melchora Aquino (January 6, 1812-March 2, 1919), also known as "Tandang Sora", holds the Filipino record.citation needed

Poland

Rozalia Mielczarek (1868-January 7, 1981) holds the Polish record at 112 years + days.

Portugal

Maria de Jesus, born September 10, 1893, is at the age of &0000000000000114.000000114 years, &0000000000000345.000000345 days, the oldest Portuguese person on record.

Augusto Oliveira Moreira, born October 6, 1896, is at the age of &0000000000000111.000000111 years, &0000000000000319.000000319 days, the oldest Portuguese man on record.

Puerto Rico

Emiliano Mercado del Toro (oldest person in the world at the time of his death) is the oldest Puerto Rican ever at 115 years and 156 days (August 21, 1891-January 24, 2007).

Ramona Trinidad Iglesias-Jordan (also oldest person in the world at the time of her death) holds the female record at 114 years and 272 days (August 31, 1889–May 29, 2004).

Romania

Anitica Butariu (or Anicuta Butariu) is considered to hold the record at 115 years, 157 days (June 17, 1882–November 21, 1997). However, there has been some question as to the source of the available documentation.

Russia

Russia is one of those regions of the world where record-keeping is poor and the myths of longevity continue to thrive (for more information, see longevity myths).[9]

According to official Russian statistics for 2007, there were 6800 centenarians living in Russia, with the oldest person being Varvara Semennikova of Yakutia, aged 117.[10] In March 2005, Russian media agencies reported that President Vladimir Putin congratulated Maria Strelnikova with her 115th birthday.

Russia has been known for a number of extreme supercentenarian claims, especially in the mountainous areas of the Caucasus, where the rarefied air, geographical isolation and millenarian habits are claimed to be perfect antidotes against the anxiety and the stress. For instance, Sarhat Rashidova, who died on 16 January 2007, had the passport claiming that she was born in 1875 and so was 131 years old. Dagestani herder Gairkhan Iriskhanov turned 112 on 14 June 2000, but claimed he was even older.[11] Khasako Dzugayev died aged 110 years + days (August 7, 1860-August 1970),citation needed though his grandson claims he lived to the age of 115.[12]

Among Russian emigrants, Russian-born Helen Czechowicz died in the US February 3, 2006, aged 110 years and 33 days. Her age was confirmed through a 1913 ship manifest. Among better known persons, poet Sasha Krasny (1882?-1995) is reported to have died at the age of 113.

Slovakia

Alžbeta Budínska holds the Slovak record at 107 years, 140 days (November 17, 1898-April 6, 2006).

Slovenia

The current and all time recordholder is Katarina Marinič, born October 30, 1899.

South Africa

Johanna Booyson holds the apparent South African record at 111 years, 151 days (January 17, 1857–June 16, 1968).

Spain

Joan Riudavets holds the overall and the male record for Spain at 114 years, 81 days (December 15, 1889–March 5, 2004).

Maria del Carmen Figueiro Freiria de Salgueiro, commonly known as Carmen Figueiro Freiria, holds the female record at 113 years, 209 days (October 28, 1883–May 25, 1997).

Sweden

Astrid Zachrison holds the female record at 113 years, 0 days (May 15, 1895 - May 15, 2008).

Anders Engberg holds the male record at 111 years, 128 days (July 1, 1892–November 6, 2003).

Switzerland

The female recordholder is Emma Duvoisin, at 111 years, 67 days. She was born 5 July 1886 and died 30 September 1997. Rosa Rein, apparently born 24 March 1897, would be the new recordholder, but her claim is currently unverified.

Fritz Bösch holds the male record at 109 years, 273 days (25 February 1877-25 November 1986).

United Kingdom

Charlotte Hughes of England holds the female record at 115 years, 252 days (August 1, 1877–March 17, 1993).

John Evans of Wales holds the male record at 112 years, 295 days (August 19, 1877–June 10, 1990).

United States

Sarah Knauss holds the female record at 119 years, 97 days (September 24, 1880–December 30, 1999).

Christian Mortensen holds the male record at 115 years, 252 days (August 16, 1882–April 25, 1998). Mortensen immigrated to the USA from Denmark. Among native-born men, the Social Security Administration recognizes Mathew Beard at 114 years, 222 days (July 9, 1870–February 16, 1985); however, the census record match used in determining this case is considered questionable. The oldest American-born man clearly matched by early records is Fred H. Hale, Sr. at 113 years, 354 days (December 1, 1890–November 19, 2004).

References

  1. ^ Ve věku 110 let zemřela nejstarší Češka (Czech)
  2. ^ a b c Report on the oldest from Iceland
  3. ^ Zomrela najstaršia 107-ročná Slovenka (Slovak)
  4. ^ Earliest Validated Supercentenarian By Nation of Birth, Rejuvenation Research. 2007, 10(3): 425-426. doi:10.1089/rej.2007.0602.
  5. ^ News report from when Astrid Zachrison became oldest Swede ever(Swedish)
  6. ^ Report of Astrid Zachrison's death, on her 113th birthday(Swedish)
  7. ^ News report: oldest man of the Nordic countries has passed away (Swedish)
  8. ^ News Report on Jóhannes Tauser's death (Faroese)
  9. ^ No Methuselahs - TIME
  10. ^ Woman from Yakutia Is Believed to Be the Oldest Person of Earth. Varvara SEMENNIKOVA, who is 117 years old, received a letter from the upper House of the Russian Parliament - Society - Vladivostok Times. Far East media news. RIA "PrimaMedia". Vladivostok
  11. ^ The St. Petersburg Times - World - A Tumultuous Century Through One Man's Eyes
  12. ^ Dzugayev, K.G. (2006). "Южная Осетия в контексте российско-грузинских отношений (South Ossetia in the context of Russian-Georgian relations)" (in Russian). Bulletin of the Vladikavkaz Institute of Management (19). “До 115 лет дожил и наш дед Хасако Дзугаев, также рассказывавший немало интересного и, как правило, поддающегося проверке исторической наукой.” 
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