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Dalits
Ambedkar a prominent leader of Dalits of the 20th century in India
Total population
200 Million (estimated)
Regions with significant populations
India ~170 Million (2000)[1][2]  Nepal ~4.5 Million (2005)[3]  Pakistan ~2.0 Million (2005)[4]  Sri Lanka Unknown(2008)  Bangladesh Unknown(2008)
Languages
Hindi• Telugu • Marathi • Tamil • Bengali
Religion
Hinduism • Sikhism • Islam • Buddhism • Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Indo-Aryan, Dravidian

Dalit is a self designation for group of people of South Asian descent who were traditionally regarded as untouchables or low caste. Dalits are a mixed population of numerous caste groups all over South Asia and speak number of languages. They are genetically similar to the remaining caste groups. It is impossible to differentiate between Dalits and the various caste groups on the basis of phenotypes or genetics. The caste system is regarded by many as a social construct between Indian people and does not have a genetic basis. ^[5]

The caste system has been abolished under the Indian constitution^[6] and since independence significant steps have been taken to provide opportunities in jobs and education. Other governments in South Asia such as Nepal and Bangladesh have also implemented policies to improve the living standards of their Dalit populations. Nevertheless there is still discrimination and prejudice against Dalits in South Asia. In the 21st century, Dalits have begun to assert political control in populous northern states of India such as Uttar Pradesh.

History of the term

The word 'Dalit(a)' comes from the Hindi root dal, and means 'held under check', 'suppressed', or 'crushed', or, in a looser sense, 'oppressed'. The usage of the term "Dalit" seems to have originated from the Arya Samaj and their dalitoddhâra ("improvement of the down-trodden") program. The Arya Samaj began the All India Shraddhanand Dalitodwar Sabha to improve the lot of Dalits.^[7]

The term was used in the 1930s as a Hindi and Marathi translation of "depressed classes", a term the British used for what are now called the scheduled castes. In 1930 there was a newspaper published for the depressed classes in Pune called "Dalit Bandu" (friends of dalits). The word was also used by B R Ambedkar in his Marathi speeches. The Dalit Panthers revived the term in their 1973 manifesto and expounded its referents to include the scheduled tribes, Neo-Buddhists, working people, landless and poor peasant women and all those being exploited politically, economically and in the name of religion . Thus the term dalit is a broad definition, encompassing all those considered to be either similarly placed.^[8]

The terms scheduled castes/scheduled tribes (SC/ST) and non-caste tribes are also used in the Indian legal system in India. However, in 2008, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes, asked the Government to end the use of the Dalit, calling it 'unconstitutional' and preferred the word, Schedule Caste instead, after the order, Chhattisgarh government ended the official use of the word. ^[9] The term Harijan was coined by Mahatma Gandhi, which means "Children of God" — Hari is another name for the deity Vishnu. The usage of term Harijan is objected to by Dalit activists as patronizing.^[10] In Tamil Nadu state the word Adi Dravida is used where as in Karanataka it is Adi Karnataka and in Andhra Pradesh it is, Adi Andhra. It means the original inhabitant of the land.^[11]

Social background and origins

See also: Persecution of Dalits and Caste-related violence in India

In the context of traditional Hindu society, Dalit status has often been historically associated with occupations regarded as ritually impure, such as any occupation involving butchering, removal of dead animals, removal of night soil (human feces) and leather work. One million Dalits work as manual scavengers, cleaning latrines and sewers by hand and clearing away dead animals.^[13] Engaging in these activities was considered to be polluting to the individual who performed them, and this pollution was considered to be 'contagious'. As a result, Dalits were commonly banned and segregated from full participation in Hindu social life (they could not enter the premises of a temple or a school and stayed outside the village), while elaborate precautions were sometimes observed to prevent incidental contact between Dalits and other castes.^[12] Discrimination against Dalits still exists in rural areas (where two-thirds of India's people live) in the private sphere, in common, every-day matters such as access to eating places, schools, temples and water sources. It has largely disappeared in urban areas and in the public sphere.^[14]

Most of the Dalits are bonded workers and many work in slave-like conditions to pay off debts that were incurred generations ago.^[15] The majority of Dalits live in segregation and experience violence, murder, rape and atrocities to the scale of 110,000 registered cases a year according to 2005 statistics.^[16] Common belief is these numbers are nowhere close to the real total of crimes committed against Dalits. Most crimes go unreported, and few registered cases ever get to trial.^[17]

Many Dalits who have converted to other religions in the past few centuries continue to retain their Dalit heritage. In the 1991 census, Dalits numbered just over 130 million and constituted more than 16% of India's population. Discrimination against Dalits is not limited to the Hindu community. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that non-Hindu Dalit groups have traditionally not been recognized as Scheduled Castes under hiring quota laws. The Dalit Muslims or "Arzal", as well as Dalit Christians form an integral part of the caste system in South Asia among Muslims and Christians. Many Dalit Muslims are discriminated against by the upper-caste "Ashraf" Muslims, and Dalit Christians are discriminated against by upper caste Christian priests and nuns.

Some Dalits have successfully integrated into urban Indian society, where caste origins are less obvious and less important in public life. In rural India, caste origins are more readily apparent and Dalits remain excluded from local religious life, though some qualitative evidence suggests that its severity is in fact fast diminishing. ^[18][19] Dalits and similar groups are also found in Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. In addition, the Burakumin of Japan and Baekjeong of Korea are similar in status to Dalits.

Sub-groups

Mumbaikar dhobis at work in the Mahalaxmi area

Dalits in North India include Dombas, Chandalas, leather-workers (called Chamar), carcass handlers (called Mahar), poor farmers and landless laborers, night soil scavengers (called Bhangi), street handcrafting people, folk artists, street cleaners, sweepers (Chura) and washermen (Dhobi). In South India the Parayas, Pulayas, Malas, Madigas are notable Dalit groups amongst many others.

Dalits and religion

Sachar Committee report of 2006 revealed that scheduled castes and tribes of India are not limited to the religion of Hinduism. The 61st Round Survey of the NSSO found that almost nine-tenth of the Buddhists and one-third of the Sikhs in India belonged to the notified scheduled castes of the Constitution while one-third of the Christians belonged to the notified scheduled tribes of the Constitution.

^[20]

Hinduism

The large majority of the Dalits in India are nominally Hindus, although some in Maharashtra and other states have converted to Buddhism, often called Neo-Buddhism.^[21] Dalits in Pakistan known as Haris are Hindus, whereas as in Sri Lanka they can be Buddhist (See Rodiya) or Hindus.

Historical attitudes

Further information: Indian caste system

A Dailt and his child in Jaipur, Rajasthan

The term, Chandala can be seen used in the Manu Smriti (codes of caste segregation) to the Mahabharata the religious epic. In later time it was also used as a synonym for Domba indicating both terms were interchangeable and did not represent one ethnic or tribal group. Instead, it was a general opprobrious term. In the early Vedic literature several of the names of castes that are spoken of in the Smritis as Antyajas occur. We have Carmanna (a tanner of hides) in the Rig Veda (VIII.8,38) the Chandala and Paulkasa occur in Vajasaneyi Samhita. Vepa or Vapta (barber) in the Rig Veda. Vidalakara or Bidalakar occurs in the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Vasahpalpuli (washer woman) corresponding to the Rajakas of the Smritis in Vajasaneyi Samhita. According to Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who recorded his visit to India in the early 4th century AD noted that by then Chandelas were living in segregated from the mainstream society as untouchables. Traditionally, Dalits were considered to be beyond the pale of Varna or caste system. They were originally considered as Panchama or the fifth group beyond the four fold division of Indian people. They were not allowed to let their shadows fall upon a non-Dalit caste member and they were required to sweep the ground where they walk to remove the 'contamination' of their footfalls. Dalits were forbidden to worship in temples or draw water from the same wells as caste Hindus, and they usually lived in segregated neighborhoods outside the main village

However, there have been cases of upper caste Hindus warming to the Dalits and Hindu priests, demoted to low caste ranks, who continued practicing the religion. An example of the latter was Dnyaneshwar, who was excommunicated into Dalit status from society in the 13th century, but continued to compose the Dnyaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagwad Gita. Other excommunicated Brahmins, such as Eknath, fought for the rights of untouchables during the Bhakti period. Historical examples of Dalit priests include Chokhamela in the 14th Century, who was India's first recorded Dalit poet, Raidas, born into Dalit cobblers amongst others. The 15th century saint Ramananda also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during the medieval period that rejected casteism. Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected casteism and accepted Dalits. Due to their isolation from the rest of the Hindu society, many Dalits continue to debate whether they are 'Hindu' or 'non-Hindu'. Traditionally, Hindu Dalits have been barred from many activities that were seen as central to Vedic religion and Hindu practices of orthodox sects. Among Hindus each community has followed its own variation of Hinduism. The wide variety of practices and beliefs observed in Hinduism makes any clear assessment difficult. Each community, including the Dalit see their importance in the history of Hinduism.

Reform Movements

Tamil Dalit school children from Tamil Nadu

The earliest known historical people to have rejected the caste system was Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. Their teachings eventually became independent religions called Buddhism and Jainism. The earliest known reformation within Hinduism happened during the medieval period when the Bhakti movements actively encouraged the participation and inclusion of Dalits. In the 19th Century, the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission actively participated in the emancipation of Dalits. While there always have been segregated places for Dalits to worship, the first "upper-caste" temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928. It was followed by the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last King of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in 1936.

Other reformers, such as Jyotirao Phule, Ayyankali of Kerala and Iyothee Thass of Tamil Nadu worked for emancipation of Dalits. The 1930s saw key struggle between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar, over whether Dalits would have separate electorates or joint electorates. Although Gandhi failed to get Ambedkar's support for not having separate seats, nevertheless began the Harijan Yatra, the journey or possession of children of God. Another popular Dalit includes Palwankar Baloo, who joined the Hindu Mahasabha and was both a politician and a cricketer. He was an independence fighter. In addition, other Hindu groups have reached out to the Dalit community in an effort to reconcile with them. On August 2006, Dalit activist Namdeo Dhasal, engaged in dialogue with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in an attempt to "bury the hatchet". Hindu temples are increasingly more receptive to Dalit priests a function formerly reserved for Brahmins. ^[22]

Dalit saints in Hinduism

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• Sant Anayar Nayanar, cowherder ^[23]
• Sant Atipattar Nayanar, fisherman^[24]
• Sant Banka Mahar, Mahar^[25]
• Sant Bhagu[1], a devotee of Krishna
• Sant Binu, a Bengali Tantrik sage
• Sant Chokha Mela, Mahar.^[26] He lived at Mangalvedha in Maharashtra. He wrote many Abhangas devoted to Krishna.[2]
• Sant Damajipanth, Mahar^[27], devotee of Vishnu
• Sant Devi Das, a Chamar disciple of Jagjivan Das
• Sant Dhanna Chamar,^[28] Chamar (cobbler)
• Sant Jiwan Das, Chamar
• Sant Kaliar Nayanar^[29]
• Sant Kanho or Kanhopatra, Mahar^[30] dancer, devotee of Vishnu[3]
• Sant Kapinjalada, Chandala, according to Mahabharata ^[31]
• Sant Karmamelam, Mahar^[32], devotee of Vishnu
• Sant Kurmadas^[33], devotee of Vishnu
• Sant Madara Dhulayya^[34]
• Sant Malamat Shah, Chamar
• Sant Nanhadas,^[35] a devotee of Rama and Sant Ramanand's disciple
• Sant Nandanar^[36] (Nanthanaar) [4], Athanuur, devotee of Shiva [5], one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite saints. Chidambaram, the main place where Nandanar practiced austerities is now a place where backward castes have their own ashrams and recite the Upanishads in Sanskrit (Sastri, P. 3 Hindu Feasts, Fasts & Ceremonies).
• Sant Nirmala, Mahar^[37]
• Sant Parshuram,^[38] from Chhattisgarh
• Sant Prasanna, Bengali, devotee of Durga Maa disciple of Kalachand
• Sant Purnananda, became recognized as a Brahmana
• Sant Rohidas or Ravidas[6], Chamar member, the Guru of Mirabai. He is said to have taken up his family job of shoe-making and supplied shoes top ascetics.[7] "My caste is low, my lineage is low, and mean is my birth. I have taken shelter, King Rama, says Ravidas the cobbler" (p. 659, Guru Granth Sahib). His disciples are the Ravidasis. He was a disciple of Ramananda, claimed by Harijans to be their master (Singh, P. 98 Leadership Patterns and Village Structure)
• Sant Sadna, butcher
• Sant Sakhubai, devotee of Vishnu
• Sant Sarwan Dass, a follower of Ravi Das
• Sant Satyakam Jabali
• Sant Shatakopa, Kanjar (prostitute) Alwar devotee, Yamuna Muni declared, "I touch my feet at the holy feet of Shatakopa" (P. 87, Gita Darshan as Bhakti Yoga, as a Chaitanyite Reads it)
• Sant Soyarabai, Sant Chokha Mela's wife
• Sant Tirukkurippu Tondar Nayanar
• Sant Tirumalisai, an Alvar Vaishnava saint
• Sant Tiru Nalai Povar Nayanar
• Sant Tiru Nilakanta Nayanar, potter, devotee of Shiva
• Sant Tiru Nilakanta Yazhpanar, one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite saints
• Sant Tiru Panazhwar[8]
• Sant Tiruvalluvar, one of 63 Nayanar Shaivite saints, wrote the Tirukkural
• Sant Umaid Ram Maharaj, Bhangi, Rajasthani. He was born on the Hindu month of Miskar (November-December) in the Hindu year 1865 on Thursday in Jodhpur. He was a medicant. His successors were Sukaram Maharaj, Deepa Ram Maharaj and the present-day Mangi Ram Maharaj.

Maharishis

Saints and sages only can become real advisors to the kings, because they are selfless and possess the highest wisdom. They only can improve the morality of the masses. They alone can show the way to eternal bliss and mortality. Shivaji had Swami Ramdas as his adviser, King Dasaratha had Maharishi Vasishtha as his advisor.

• Maharishi Veda Vyasa, was born of and raised by a fisherwoman and Parashara (See below)
• Maharishi Valmiki- author of the Ramayana.
• Maharishi Naval Ram, a member of the Rajasthani Bhangi caste. He was born in 1840 on the month of Bhadrapad on Wednesday in Harsala village in Nagaur district. His successors were Daya Ram Maharaj (his son), Ram Baksh Maharaj and the present-day Badri Ram Maharaj.
• Maharishi Vithal Ramji Shinde, a member of the Prartna Samaj and founder of the Depressed Classes Mission organization for the upliftment of backward-caste Hindus.
• Maharishi Parashara, son of an outcaste woman (Matsyakanya-Satyavathi Devi), was one of the greatest devotes and thinkers in the Hindu Dharma. He was a very powerful Vedic astrologer. His astrological book is the Parasara Hora still used today. He has also written a Smriti known as Parasara Smriti which is held in such high esteem that it is quoted by our present-day writers on sociology and ethics
• Maharishi Soot, narrator of the Puranas.

Islam

Muslim society in India can also be separated into several caste-like groups. Descendants of indigenous lower-caste converts are discriminated against by "noble", or "ashraf",^[39] Muslims who can trace their descent to Arab, Iranian, or Central-Asian ancestors. There are several groups in India working to emancipate them from upper-caste Muslim discrimination.^[40][41]

The Dalit Muslims are referred to by the Ashraf and Ajlaf Muslims as Arzal or "ritually degraded". They were first recorded in the 1901 census as those “with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground”. They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil.

Ambedkar wrote about the Dalit Muslims and was extremely critical of their mistreatment by upper-caste Muslims quoting that "Within these groups there are castes with social precedence of exactly the same nature as one finds among the Hindus"

Sikhism

Dalits form a class among the Sikhs who stratify their society according to traditional casteism. Kanshi Ram himself was of Sikh background although converted because he found that Sikh society did not respect Dalits and so became a neo-Buddhist. The most recent controversy was at village Talhan Gurudwara near Jalandhar where there was a dispute between Jatt Sikhs and Ravidasia Sikhs. The Different Sikh Dalits are Ravidasia Sikh and Mazhabi Sikh. Although Sikhism does not recognize the Caste System, many families, especially the ones with immediate cultural ties to India, generally do not marry among different castes.

There are sects such as the Adi-Dharmis who have now abandoned Sikh Temples and the 5 Ks. They are like the Ravidasis and regard Ravidas as their guru. They are also clean shaven as opposed to the mainstream Sikhs. Mangoo Ram was from this community and a member of the Arya Samak who tried to organize the Ad-Dharmis. Other Sikh groups include Jhiwars, Bazigars, Rai Sikh (many of whom are Ravidasias.) Just like the violence against Harijans (Hindu Dalits), there has been violence against Sikh Dalits.

The Dalits have said before in parliment, "Punjab Government unable to defend us from Sikh tyranny. Sikhs have totally boycotted Harijans in villages."^[42]

Christianity

Main article: Dalit Christian

Across India, many Christian communities still follow the caste system. Sometimes the social stratification remains unchanged and in some cases such as among Goan Christians, the stratification varies as compared to the Hindu System. The conversion to Christianity does not necessarily free Dalits of the bondages of caste system.

A 1992 study [9] of Catholics in Tamil Nadu found some Dalit Christians faced segregated churches, cemeteries, services and even processions. Despite Christian teachings these Dalit also faced economic and social hardships due to discrimination by upper-caste priests and nuns. Other sources support these conclusions, including Christian advocacy groups for Dalits. One famous Christian Dalit activist with the nom-de-plume Bama Faustina has written books providing a first-hand account of discrimination by several upper-caste nuns and priests in South India.

Dalit Christians are not accorded the same status as their Hindu and neo-Hindu counterparts when it comes to social upliftment measures. In recent years, there have been demands from Dalit Christians, backed by prominent church authorities and boards to accord them the same benefits as other Dalits.

Buddhism

Main article: Dalit Buddhist movement

In Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and a few other regions, Dalits have come under the influence of the neo-Buddhist movement initiated by Ambedkar. Some of them have come under the influence of the Neo-Buddhist and Christian Missionaries and have converted away from Hinduism into religions such as Christianity and Buddhism in what they have been told is an "attempt to eliminate the prejudice they face".

In the officially Hindu country of Nepal, Dalits and other populations are turning to Buddhism from Vedic Hinduism. Reasons cited are to embrace non-violence and as a response to the caste system, which has led to a substantial increase in Buddhists in the population while those professing Hindusim have decreased from 88% in 1961 to 80% and are declining at present.

The Prevention of Atrocities Act

Main article: Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

The Prevention of Atrocities Act (POA) is a tacit acknowledgement by the Indian government that caste relations are defined by violence, both incidental and systemic.^[43] In 1989, the Government of India passed the Prevention of Atrocities Act (POA), which clarified specific crimes against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (the Dalits) as “atrocities,” and created strategies and punishments to counter these acts. The purpose of The Act was to curb and punish violence against Dalits. Firstly, it clarified what atrocities were: both particular incidents of harm and humiliation such as the forced consumption of noxious substances, as well as the systemic violence still faced by many Dalits, especially in rural areas. Such systemic violence includes forced labor, denial of access to water and other public amenities, and sexual abuse of Dalit women. Secondly, the Act created Special Courts to try cases registered under the POA. Thirdly, the Act called on states with high levels of caste violence to be “atrocity-prone” and to appoint qualified officers to monitor and maintain law and order. The POA gave Dalits vital ammunition in the form of legal redress but only two states have created separate Special Courts in accordance with the law. In practice the Act has suffered from a near-complete failure in implementation. Policemen have displayed a consistent unwillingness to register offenses under the act. This reluctance stems partially from ignorance and also from peer protection. According to a 1999 study, nearly a quarter of those government officials charged with enforcing the Act are unaware of its existence.^[43]

Dalits and contemporary Indian politics

Newspapers in Calcutta announce the surprise majority for Mayawati's party in the 2007 elections in Uttar Pradesh

While the Indian Constitution has duly made special provisions for the social and economic uplift of the Dalits, comprising the so-called scheduled castes and tribes in order to enable them to achieve upward social mobility, these concessions are limited to only those Dalits who remain Hindu. There is a demand among the Dalits who have converted to other religions that the statutory benefits should be extended to them as well, to "overcome" and bring closure to historical injustices.^[41]

Another major politically charged issue with the rise of Hindutva's (Hindu nationalism) role in Indian politics is that of religious conversion. This political movement alleges that conversions of Dalits are due not to any social or theological motivation but to allurements like education and jobs. Critics argue that the inverse is true due to laws banning conversion, and the limiting of social relief for these backward sections of Indian society being revoked for those who convert. Bangaru Laxman, a Dalit politician, was a prominent member of the Hindutva movement.

Another political issue is over the affirmative action measures taken by the government towards the uplift of the Dalits by implementation of quotas in government jobs and university admissions aimed at improving Dalit representation. About 8% of the seats in the National and State Parliaments are reserved for Scheduled Caste and Tribe candidates, a measure sought by B.R. Ambedkar and other Dalit activists in order to ensure that Dalits would obtain a proportionate political voice.

Anti-Dalit prejudices exist in fringe groups, such as extremist far-right militia Ranvir Sena, largely run by upper-caste landlords in backward areas of the Indian state of Bihar. They oppose equal treatment of Dalits and have resorted to violent means to suppress the Dalits. The Ranvir Sena is considered a terrorist organization.

In 2008, Mayawati, a Dalit from the Bahujan Samaj Party, was elected as the Chief Minister of India's biggest state Uttar Pradesh. Her victory was the outcome of her efforts to expand her political base beyond Dalits, embracing in particular the Brahmins of Uttar Pradesh ^[44][45]. Mayawati, together with her political mentor Kanshi Ram, saw that the interests of the average Dalit (most of whom are landless agricultural laborers) were more in conflict with the middle castes such as the Yadav caste, who owned most of the agricultural land in Uttar Pradesh, than with the predominantly city-dwelling upper castes ^{[46] [47]}. Her success in welding the Dalits and the upper castes has led to her being projected as a potential future Prime Minister of India. ^[48]

Dalit literature

Dalit literature, forms an important yet distinct part of Indian literature ^[49][50] One of first Dalit writers were, Madara Chennaiah, a 11th century, cobbler-saint, who lived in the reign of Western Chalukyas, who is also considered by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry. Later poets of Kannada literature like, Basavanna (1160), who was also the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II (1130 - 1167 CE) viewed him in high regard, another poet that finds mention is, Dohara Kakkaiah, a Dalit by birth, six of whose confessional poems have survived today ^[51].

Modern Dalit literature

In the modern era, Dalit literature received its first impetus with the advent of leaders like, Mahatma Phule and Ambedkar in Maharashtra, who brought forth the issues of Dalits through their works and writings; this started a new trend in Dalit writing, and inspired many Dalit writers to come forth with their writings, mostly in Marathi, Hindi, Tamil and more recently Punjabi ^[52].

By the 1960s, Dalit literature saw a fresh crop of new writers like, Baburao Bagul, Bandhu Madhav ^[53], Shankarao Kharat, though its formal form came into being with the Little magazine movement ^[54], Dalit Voice, a political magazine which started publishing in 1981 was another force in affirming the rise of Dalit literature in India ^[55][56] In Sri Lanka Dalit writers like Dominic Jeeva became popular as mainstream writers in the late 1960.

See also

• Annabhau Sathe
• Caste-related violence in India
• 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra
• Dalit Freedom Network

References

Further reading

• Untouchable!: Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement, by Barbara R. Joshi, Zed Books, 1986. ISBN 0862324602, 9780862324605.
• An Anthology Of Dalit Literature, by Mulk Raj Anand. 1992, Gyan Books. ISBN 8121204194, ISBN 9788121204194.
• Dalits and the Democratic Revolution - Dr. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India, by Gail Omvedt. 1994, Sage Publications. ISBN 8170363683.
• The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India, by Oliver Mendelsohn, Marika Vicziany, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0521556716, 9780521556712.
• Dalit Identity and Politics, by Ranabira Samaddara, Ghanshyam Shah, Sage Publications, 2001. ISBN 0761995080, 9780761995081.
• Journeys to Freedom: Dalit Narratives, by Fernando Franco, Jyotsna Macwan, Suguna Ramanathan. Popular Prakashan, 2004. ISBN 8185604657, 9788185604657.
• Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature, by Sharankumar Limbale. 2004, Orient Longman. ISBN 8125026568.
• From Untouchable to Dalit - Essays on the Ambedkar Movement, by Eleanor Zilliot. 2005, Manohar. ISBN 8173041431.
• Dalit Politics and Literature, by Pradeep K. Sharma. Shipra Publications, 2006. ISBN 8175412712, 9788175412712.
• Dalit Visions: The Anti-caste Movement and the Construction of an Indian Identity, by Gail Omvedt. Orient Longman, 2006. ISBN 8125028951, 9788125028956.
• Dalits in Modern India - Vision and Values, by S M Michael. 2007, Sage Publications. ISBN 9780761935711.
• Dalit Literature : A Critical Exploration, by Amar Nath Prasad & M.B. Gaijan. 2007. ISBN 8176258172.

External links

Resource websites

• Dalit India Website
• National Campaign for Dalit Human Rights (NCD) Website
• Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (Govt. of India) Website
• Dalit freedom Network Website
• International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) Website
• Scheduled Castes Federation of Pakistan (SCFP)

Articles

• Broken People, Caste Violence Against The Untouchables
• Untouchable
• India's "Untouchables" Face Violence, Discrimination
• Dalit chronicles (Feb 26, 2008)
• Articles, interviews on Dalit issues at countercurrents
• Contribution of Backward-caste Hindu Saints